The purpose of this article is to determine the best treatment for Judy. Judy’s case study, psychoanalysis, behaviorism, and humanism will be reviewed in this article. First, Judy’s case
study must be analyzed.
Psychoanalysis
Case Study Judy
The case study, Judy, has lost her feelings of self-worth. Judy is a single 29-year-old female who has a demanding job with high stress at a large hospital as a second-year medical
student. As a high achiever Judy graduated with top honors from college as well as medical school. Due to Judy’s high self-standards she over-criticizes herself when she fails to meet her own standards. Judy has struggled with significant feelings of shame and worthlessness due to her inability to meet her past standards of performance. Next, psychoanalysis will be discussed.
Historical Underpinnings of Psychoanalysis
The “Anna O” case prompted the beginnings of psychoanalysis. Josef Breuer began treating “Anna O” in 1880 after the death of her father for symptoms such as loss of sensation, partial paralysis, and periods of overexcitement (Benjamin, 2014). Later, Anna experienced hallucinations, multiple personalities, and the inability to drink; after telling Breuer of an unpleasant experience of seeing a dog drink out of a glass Anna’s regained the ability to drink (Benjamin, 2014). Since relieving the tension caused by Anna’s bad experience worked, Breuer attempted to alleviate her other symptoms with hypnosis (Benjamin, 2014). With the help of some time in a sanatorium Breuer eventually cured all of “Anna O’s” symptoms by what he called a cathartic cure that consists of relieving pent up emotions (Benjamin, 2014). Breuer’s success with “Anna O” fascinated Sigmund Freud who discussed the case with Breuer and formulated his own theory of psychoanalysis that involved more sexual interpretation (Benjamin, 2014). The cornerstone case for psychoanalysis is “Anna O” which set the stage for the use of case histories to develop methods and theories (Benjamin, 2014). The case of “Anna O” intrigued Freud so much that his work stemming from this interest evolved into psychoanalysis. Sigmund Freud will be discussed next.
Sigmund Freud’s Psychoanalysis
Sigmund Freud developed his own theory of psychanalysis. Freud’s theory argues that the behavior of humans results from interaction of the mind’s three components of the id or gratification of carnal needs, ego or compromise, and superego or rationality (Boundless, 2016). In Freud’s theory unconscious psychological conflicts shape personality and behavior (Boundless, 2016). Freud’s contribution to psychoanalysis were a theory of the normal mind, a theory of the neuroses, and a method (Benjamin, 2014). Freud’s work added momentum to the new field of psychoanalysis. Next, Alfred Adler will be discussed.
Alfred Adler’s Individual Psychology
Alfred Adler’s theory is different from Freud’s. Adler believed in a consciously developed innate social interest for all people that should be developed by institutions (Glenn & Keith, 2002). Adler approached psychology in a holistic manner to understand behavior so that his term “individual psychology” was intentionally coined (Glenn & Keith, 2002). In individual psychology the whole is greater than the sum of the parts so that people should be seen as whole beings without the definition of partial characteristics (Glenn & Keith, 2002). The settings in which an individual operates should be considered in order to properly consider what to do for them when utilizing Adler’s individual psychology (Glenn & Keith, 2002). Alfred Adler believed a person should be considered as a whole being. Carl Jung’s analytical psychology will be discussed next.
Carl Jung’s Analytical Psychology
Carl Jung’s theory broadened the field of psychoanalysis. Jung’s approach to human mind study was foundational in that it is analytical psychology that emphasizes the importance of individual psyche as well as a personal quest for wholeness (Samuels, 1994). The main goal of Jungian psychology is self-attainment through individuation with “self” being the "archetype of wholeness and the regulating center of the psyche" (Samuels, 1994). The individual’s encounter with his or her psyche to bring its elements to consciousness is central to this process, and the unconscious is experienced symbolically (Samuels, 1994). Jung believed that people have a shadow self that consists of suppressed personal qualities that may be either destructive or constructive and are not accepted by the person who is repressing them (Samuels, 1994). Jung believed that symbols hold a key to the psyche. Next, Karen Horney will be discussed.
Karen Horney: A Feminist View of Psychoanalysis
Karen Horney brought a feminine view to psychoanalysis. Horney was a “second generation” psychoanalyst who stressed patient need for identification of the current anxieties’ specific cause as opposed to exclusive focus on childhood fantasies or memories (Gilman, 2001). Karen believed that we can grow and change up until our last day of life (Gilman, 2001). Her uncompromising and radical intellect broke away from traditional psychoanalysis models and supplied complex ways to integrate social and cultural forces into comprehension of human psychology (Gilman, 2001). Karen Horney brought a new perspective to psychoanalysis. The major concepts of psychoanalysis will be reviewed next.
Major Concepts within Psychoanalysis
Psychoanalysis has some major concepts. In psychoanalysis the root of psychological problems is in the unconscious mind and bringing unconscious motivations and thoughts to the conscious mind gives insight into problems (Capella University, n.d.). Denial and repression are defense mechanisms that humans employ in order to cope with anxiety (Capella University, n.d.). Unresolved childhood issues often cause psychological disturbance in adulthood (Capella University, n.d.). The major concepts within psychanalysis do not apply to all of the key player’s theories. Next, Judy’s case in psychoanalysis will be analyzed.
Judy’s Case in Psychoanalysis
Each key player in psychoanalysis would have different ideas about what is ails Judy. Sigmund Freud would say that Judy’s feelings of inadequacy stem from repressed childhood trauma. Alan Adler would want to consider Judy’s job and home settings before he made any decisions about her treatment. Carl Jung may believe that Judy’s shadow self is emerging. Karen Horney may want to examine Judy’s present anxieties to search for ways to help her. The general observation of most psychoanalysts would be that Judy has unresolved issues from childhood affecting her. The strengths of psychoanalysis would be the combination of all of the key players’ theories in order to help Judy, and the limitations would come from not employing all the schools of thought in psychoanalysis for Judy’s benefit. Bidirectional relationships between cultural and societal factors for psychoanalysis will be discussed in the following paragraph.
Bidirectional Relationships between Cultural and Societal Factors of Psychoanalysis
Adler’s work demonstrates these relationships. “The Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler should be used as a foundational theory for student affairs work” (Glenn & Keith, 2002, para.1). A growing interest among student affairs professionals for “community” development and its impact on campus culture and students has developed in recent years (Glenn & Keith, 2002). Boyer and others associated with the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching became effective advocates for the vast benefits of community development (Glenn & Keith, 2002). An increased emphasis has been placed on planning and implementing community promoting activities (Glenn & Keith, 2002). Adler’s work has had somewhat of a positive impact on community development. Next, the influence of psychoanalysis on cultural and societal events will be discussed.
The Influence of Psychoanalysis on Cultural and Societal Events
The work of Karen Horney reflects the manner in which cultural and societal events of the time shaped the development of this school of thought. Horney explored the political questions about female sexuality and called for alterations of the male-biased view of psychology that greatly impacted the 1970s feminist theory (Gilman, 2001). Karen asserted, "Is not the tremendous strength in men of the impulse to creative work in every field precisely due to their feeling of playing a relatively small part in the creation of living beings, which constantly impels them to an overcompensation in achievement?"(Gilman, 2001). Karen Horney’s work opened the gates for feminism. Behaviorism will be discussed in the following section.
Behaviorism
Historical underpinnings of Behaviorism
The work of John Watson started the field of behaviorism in psychology. Watson was disillusioned by the lack of hard scientific evidence associated with psychology and he was really perturbed by reliance on introspection (Benjamin, 2014). In 1913 Watson informed his audience that “I do not wish unduly to criticize psychology. It has failed signally… the time seems to have come when psychology must discard all reference to consciousness; when it need no longer delude itself into thinking that it is making mental states the object of observation” (Benjamin, 2014, p. 163). Thus the behaviorist revolution was begun to banish the functional and structural schools of psychology (Benjamin, 2014). John Watson’s desire to bring science to psychology spurred the behaviorist movement. John Watson will be further discussed next.
Watson as Behaviorism’s Founder
John Watson is the “father” of behaviorism. The article “Psychology as the Behaviorist Views it” or “The Behaviorist Manifesto” was publishes in 1913 by John Watson (Creelan, 1985). In it he states that "psychology as the behaviorist views it is a purely objective experimental branch of natural science. Its theoretical goal is the prediction and control of behavior. Introspection forms no essential part of its methods, nor is the scientific value of its data dependent upon the readiness with which they lend themselves to interpretation in terms of consciousness. The behaviorist, in his efforts to get a unitary scheme of animal response, recognizes no dividing line between man and brute. The behavior of man, with all of its refinement and complexity, forms only a part of the behaviorist's total scheme of investigation." (Creelan, 1985, p.196). John Watson’s words are a perfect for explaining behaviorism. Next, Tolman’s cognitive behaviorism will be discussed.
Tolman’s Cognitive Behaviorism
Tolman added a new perspective to behaviorism. In 1948, Edward Tolman challenged
accepted behaviorism beliefs to introduce the idea that animals and people are active information
processors instead of passive learners (McLeod, 2013). For Tolman individuals act on attitudes,
beliefs, changing conditions as well as strive toward their goals instead of merely responding to
stimuli (McLeod, 2013). He coined the cognitive map that consists of stimulus to input process
to storage process to output process and finally the response (McLeod, 2013). It seems like Tolman wanted to bring consciousness back into behaviorism to a small degree. Hull’s
hypothetico-deductive behaviorism will be discussed next.
Hull’s Hypothetico-Deductive Behaviorism
Clark introduced his own theory. Clark Leonard Hull sought to explain motivation and learning and by scientific laws of behavior (Guttman, 1977). The basis of Hull’s work was formed by the reinforcement theory of learning that explained behavior in terms of response to stimulus that is associated in learning process (Guttman, 1977). In a collaboration with several coworkers for the Mathematico-Deductive Theory of Rote Learning his findings were expressed through postulates stated in both verbal and mathematical forms (Guttman, 1977). His approach to the study of behavior is his lasting legacy to psychology instead of his specific theories (Guttman, 1977). Hull contributed behavior observation to behaviorism. Next, Skinner’s radical behaviorism will be discussed.
Skinner’s Radical Behaviorism
B.F. Skinner worked with changing behavior. Skinner’s method of reinforcing desired behavior in order to change behavior was known as operant conditioning (Benjamin, 2014). Mr. Skinner also demonstrated that overuse of punishment produced undesirable side effects when changing behavior (Benjamin, 2014). “He called for minimal use of punishment and, instead, emphasized the more positive outcomes of reinforcement whether in schools, the workplace, or parenting” (Benjamin, 2014, p.157). Skinner’s manner of changing behavior is operant conditioning. Major concepts within behaviorism will be discussed in the following paragraph.
Major Concepts within Behaviorism
Behaviorism has some major concepts. Behaviorists believed that psychology should be a science with scientifically tangible data (Capella University, n.d.). Psychology should only be concerned about measurable and observable behavior in behaviorism (Capella University, n.d.). Behaviorists also declared that a person’s behavior is based on their environment and that there is no free will (Capella University, n.d.). Behaviorists believed that everything concerned with psychology should be solid scientific evidence. Next, Judy’s case in behaviorism will be discussed.
Judy’s Case in Behaviorism
Each key player in behaviorism would have different ideas about what is ails Judy. John Watson would claim that Judy’s difficulties are occurring for specific and provable scientific reasons. Tolman may reason that Judy is not responding will to stimulus. Hull may theorize that Judy’s behavior is a result of what she has learned. B.F. Skinner may want to reward Judy for thinking positive thoughts about herself. The general view of Judy’s case in behaviorism may be that Judy’s needed to supply scientific evidence about her stress and child troubles. The limitations of behaviorism are that Judy may have problems that cannot be proven with science. The behaviorist claim that we do not have free will is also a limitation because it seems like Judy needs to have the free will to realize that she is not worthless, and she needs to consider things that will not show up on any scientific test. Bidirectional relationships between cultural and societal factors and behaviorism will be discussed next.
Bidirectional Relationships between Cultural and Societal Factors and Behaviorism
The bidirectional relationships were affected by WWI. Psychology was impacted because the positive image left by psychological testing in WWI attracted more people to the field (Benjamin, 2014). Research in psychology began to expand for application in the work force too (Benjamin, 2014). It’s interesting that psychological work during the war opened doors for psychology to become more accessible to society. Next, the influence of behaviorism on cultural and societal events will be discussed.
The Influence of Behaviorism on Cultural and Societal Events
In WWI there were cultural and societal factors affected by behaviorism. The factors that people in the armed forces who were negatively affected by the war spurred psychologists to become responsible for testing soldiers (Benjamin, 2014). Psychologists also developed other tests to aid the military with personnel selection (Benjamin, 2014). Basically, it seems like the war provided “subjects” for the behaviorists to test. Humanism will be discussed next.
Humanism
Historical Underpinnings of Humanism
Humanism was developed by psychologists who thought behaviorism was lacking. The humanistic approach developed in reaction to and to rebel against perceived limitations of psychodynamic psychology and behaviorism because they were viewed as dehumanizing (Boundless, 2016). The Journal of Humanistic Psychology first appeared in 1961’s Spring, and in 1962 this movement was formally started as the Association for Humanistic Psychology with the sponsorship of Brandeis University (McLeod, 2015). Humanism was developed to put the humanity back into psychology. Next, Abraham Maslow will be discussed.
Abraham Maslow
Abraham Maslow helped the development of humanism.
Maslow believed that people have a set of motivation systems that aren’t related to unconscious desires or rewards (McLeod, 2007). Maslow's hierarchy of needs has five motivational needs that are usually depicted as a pyramid with hierarchical levels in which a higher need cannot be met until the lower needs are met (McLeod, 2007). Physiological needs come first, then safety needs, social needs, esteem needs, and finally self-actualization so that Maslow believed that a person could not meet self-actualization until all of their other needs are met (McLeod, 2007). It seems that Mr. Maslow did not consider people in bad situations, such as Gandhi’s hunger strike, who are able to obtain self-actualization. Carl Rogers will be discussed next.
Carl Rogers
Carl Rogers introduced his own aspect into behaviorism. Rogers view was that self-actualization occurs when we find our “true selves” and we live harmoniously with our “inner core” (Geller, 1982). Rogers’ theorized that therapists should practice empathy feel what the client is feeling (Geller, 1982). In the article "Significant Aspects of Client-Centered Therapy", Mr. Rogers explains that we cannot reveal too much of what we may sense with empathy to our clients at a fast rate because it may make them uncomfortable; in fact, he suggests slow growth to reach self-actualization (Rogers, 1946). Mr. Roger’s theory to find our “inner selves” to reach self-actualization is logical. Next, major concepts within humanism will be analyzed.
Major concepts within Humanism
Humanism has major concepts. Humanists believe that behavior is connected to one’s self-concept and inner feelings (Capella University, n.d.). Free will is exercised in the choices people make in their lives (Capella University, n.d.). According to humanists, people innately need to strive for personal growth and better themselves (Capella University, n.d.). Humanism approaches psychology with a sense of humanity. Judy’s case in humanism will be discussed next.
Judy’s Case in Humanism
Players in the field of humanism would not agree about what Judy needs. Maslow may believe that Judy’s needs have not all been met for her to realize how good she really is. Carl Rogers would most likely reflect on Judy’s fears with empathetic and humanistic care that would help her reach self-actualization. The humanistic approach seems like the most logical way to approach Judy’s case because it deals with striving for personal growth. This author proposes that Carl Rogers would provide the most effective therapy for Judy as she needs to have someone reflect on her that she is not worthless and to help her reach self-actualization because once she realizes how awesome she really is she will be happy in life. Another good point about humanism is that it features the fact that the choices we make affect us. Judy is choosing to feel bad for herself and she needs to realize that it is all in her own mind. Next, bidirectional relationships between cultural and societal factors and humanism will be reviewed.
Bidirectional Relationships between Cultural and Societal Factors and Humanism
Humanism had bidirectional relationships with cultural and societal factors. ”Society expects undergraduate degree egresses to exert their profession by integrating certain competencies, such as technical and scientific knowledge, skills, attitudes, behaviors and continuous professional development” (Konopka, et.al., 2015, para.1). One study found that Rogerian intervention measurable changed attitudes according to belief dimension to increase positivity in those who employed it (Konopka, et.al., 2015). Humanisms relationship improved those in society who tried it. The influence of humanism on cultural and societal events will be analyzed next.
The Influence of Humanism on Cultural and Societal Events
Humanism influences cultural and societal events. The influence of humanistic psychology expanded throughout the 70s and 80s in major areas (McLeod, 2015). A new set of values for approaching a comprehension of the human condition and human nature, an expanded horizon of methods to inquire into human behavior study, and a wider range of more effective methods in psychotherapy were offered by humanism (McLeod, 2015). Humanism brought knowledge of humanity to culture and society.
Judy’s case study, psychoanalysis, behaviorism, and humanism have been discussed in this article. This author reasons that Carl Rogers’ work with self-actualization would benefit Judy the most because feelings of worthlessness are choices that Judy is making that can be improved with self-actualization.
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I just love it when science gets into the human psyche. If we had more time for experiments and analysis on human behavior and mechanisms we would be doing more with that vessel other than watching tv with a beer on your hand.
ReplyDeleteyeppers...i can't stand tv anymore, or news, & i stopped reading what they tell us in news...thanx U ...LOVE U ...we need more like us in the world +++ase+++
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